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瓷娃娃,钢筋铁骨 (2):成骨不全综合征(OI):临床诊断、命名和严重程度评估:2014年瓷娃娃,钢筋铁骨(2):成骨不全综合征(OI):临床诊断、命名和严重程度评估:2014年作者:FSVanDijk1,DOSillence作者单位:DepartmentofClinicalGenetics,CenterforConnectiveTissueDisorders,VUUniversityMedicalCenter,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands.译者:陶可(北京大学人民医院骨关节科)合作:任宁涛(解放军总医院第四医学中心骨科)摘要最近,Sillence等于1979年提出的成骨不全症(OI)的遗传异质性已通过分子遗传学研究得到证实。目前,已经确定了17种成骨不全症(OI)和密切相关疾病的遗传原因,预计还会有更多。与过去十年发表的关于导致成骨不全症(OI)的遗传原因和生化过程的大多数评论不同,这篇评论侧重于成骨不全症(OI)的临床分类,并详细阐述了2010年新提出的成骨不全症(OI)分类,回归到描述性和数字分组:五个成骨不全症(OI)综合征组。本综述中引入的新成骨不全症(OI)命名法和产前和产后严重程度评估,强调了表型分析对于诊断、分类和评估成骨不全症(OI)严重程度的重要性。这将使患者及其家人深入了解疾病的可能病程,并使医生能够评估治疗效果。结合对特定分子遗传原因的了解,仔细的临床描述是开发和评估包括成骨不全症(OI)在内的遗传性疾病患者治疗的起点。关键词:分类;I型胶原蛋白;骨折;异质性;成骨不全症图1.I型胶原生物合成概述。I型胶原由两条a1链和一条a2链组成。翻译后,pro-a1链和pro-a2链在粗面内质网(rER)中加工。这些链必须对齐才能开始将I型(原)胶原蛋白,折叠成三股螺旋。下一步是对齐三个链,以便开始折叠成三螺旋结构。在此折叠过程中,会发生特定蛋白质的翻译后修饰。编码参与翻译后修饰的蛋白质的基因以及据报道其中的突变会导致成骨不全症(OI),如图所示。在I型前胶原转运到高尔基复合体并胞吐进入细胞外基质后,C和N前肽的裂解导致I型胶原的形成。随后,I型胶原分子的交联导致原纤维的形成。多个I型胶原原纤维形成胶原纤维,是骨骼的重要成分。表3成骨不全症(OI)的产前和产后严重程度分级量表轻度成骨不全症(OI)【轻度成骨不全症(OI)患者最常患有1型或4型成骨不全症(OI)】怀孕20周时的超声检查结果无子宫内长骨骨折或弓形产后罕见先天性骨折正常或接近正常的生长速度和身高直的长骨,即没有固有的长骨畸形除了急性骨折的时候,完全可以走动轻度椎体粉碎性骨折腰椎骨矿物质密度Z值通常>1.5(1.5至±1.5)年化骨折率小于或等于1没有慢性骨痛或通过简单镇痛药控制的轻微疼痛正常上学,即不会因疼痛、嗜睡或疲劳而缺课。中度成骨不全症(OI)怀孕20周时的超声检查结果很少有胎儿长骨骨折或弓背(但在最后三个月可能会增加)产后(未被双膦酸盐治疗改变)偶见先天性骨折生长速度和身高下降腿部和大腿前弓形与复发性骨折固定相关的长骨弯曲椎骨挤压性骨折腰椎骨矿物质密度Z评分通常>2.5至<1.5)但范围很广年化青春期前骨折率大于1(平均值为3,范围很广)每年因疼痛缺勤超5天。严重的成骨不全症(OI)怀孕20周时的超声检查结果长骨缩短长骨骨折和/或弓形,伴有一些生长发育不足肋骨细长,肋骨骨折不存在或不连续(中间病例,介于严重和极严重之间,肋骨骨折很少,但长骨皱折)矿化减少产后(未被双膦酸盐治疗改变)线性增长明显受损依赖轮椅长骨和脊柱进行性畸形(与骨折无关)多发椎体粉碎性骨折腰椎骨矿物质密度Z评分通常<3.0(范围宽年龄比较,因为测量值取决于尺寸/身高)每年超过3次骨折的年化青春期前骨折率(取决于年龄)慢性骨痛,除非用双膦酸盐治疗因骨折和疲劳或疼痛为特征的学校出勤率下降。极度严重的成骨不全症(OI)怀孕20周时的超声检查结果长骨缩短骨折和/或长骨弯曲伴有严重的生长发育不足导致皱巴巴的(类似手风琴的)长骨由于多处骨折或肋骨较薄,肋骨连续增厚(以前分别描述为成骨不全症(OI)类型2-A和2-B)矿化减少产后大腿固定外展和外旋,大多数关节活动受限严重慢性疼痛的临床指标(脸色苍白、出汗、呜咽或做鬼脸)被动运动颅骨骨化减少,长骨和肋骨多处骨折,胸阔小。缩短的紧实股骨具有类似手风琴的外观所有椎骨发育不全/压碎呼吸窘迫导致围产儿死亡围产期致死过程。成骨不全综合征(OI)的严重程度分级在所有成骨不全症(OI)类型中发现COL1A1/2突变后的几年里,临床实践中经常使用四种成骨不全症(OI)类型来反映其严重程度:轻型(OI1型)、致死性(OI2型)、严重畸形(OI3型)和中等程度畸形(OI4型)。尽管INCDS同意将Sillence分类保留为“对成骨不全症(OI)严重程度进行分类的原型和普遍接受的方法”[Warman等2011年],但有人提出需要国际商定的受影响个体严重程度分级标准,并且采纳,也反映了成骨不全症(OI)患者治疗的改进可能性(手术、药物和保守治疗)。这里提出的严重程度分级量表依赖于临床、历史数据、骨折频率、骨密度测定和活动水平(表3)。利塞膦酸盐在成骨不全症中的POISE(小儿成骨不全症的安全性和有效性研究)采用了这种严重程度分级,该研究确定了来自11个国家的22名研究人员确定的231名儿童[Munns和Sillence,2013年;Bishop等2013]。作者在此修改了POISE研究的分级,增加了产前临床和超声检查结果的一般指南。该量表将需要通过专业中心与足够患者的合作进一步验证,并使用设施进行全面评估,以进一步确认和阐明其临床实用性。注:利塞膦酸钠属于第三代双膦酸盐,是一种骨吸收抑制剂,用于治疗各类骨质疏松。利塞膦酸钠是与羟基磷灰石有非常强的亲和力,能够沉积于骨骼及关节骨质中,它不仅能够抑制破骨细胞活性,也能促进破骨细胞出现凋亡,减缓骨丢失和骨吸收速度。成骨不全症(OI)的临床表现和特征成骨不全症(OI)的一般临床表现和特征主要特征:易骨折和骨质疏松虽然终生容易骨折是最重要的临床特征,但1型成骨不全症(OI)家庭的经验表明,可能有10%的受影响个体在童年时期没有发生过长骨骨折[Sillence,1980年]。然而,用于测量骨密度的更新技术,例如骨骼的双能X线吸收测定法(DXA)[Luetal.,1994]和/或最近的外周定量计算机断层扫描(pQCT)[Gattietal.,2003];Folkestad等2012]的前臂和下肢,经常显示在那些通过正式遗传分析患有成骨不全症(OI)的个体中,至少一个骨骼区域的骨密度显着降低(表3)。净骨脆性是原发性骨脆性和骨质疏松症导致的继发性骨脆性共同作用的最终结果。大多数成骨不全症(OI)患者会出现骨质疏松症。成骨不全症(OI)患者骨转换血清和尿液标志物升高的发现与骨组织形态学的发现一起考虑,最好用骨形成增加和骨吸收增加的组合来解释[Rauch和Glorieux,2004]。净效应是小的进行性骨质流失,因为骨吸收通常大于骨形成,固定也对骨形成产生负面影响。许多成骨不全症(OI)儿童在经主治医师仔细评估后开始使用旨在降低破骨细胞活性的双膦酸盐治疗。在这方面,静脉注射双膦酸盐的周期性治疗已成为治疗中度至重度成骨不全症(OI)儿童的金标准。最近一项针对成骨不全症(OI)儿童口服利塞膦酸盐的随机、双盲、安慰剂对照试验(包括大部分受轻度至中度影响的儿童)表明骨折风险显着降低,从而扩大了该疗法的治疗益处成骨不全症(OI)儿童[Bishop等2013]。一般相关的功能一些受累个体(而非其他个体)的相关特征包括明显的巩膜发蓝、年轻成人发作的听力损失、牙本质发育不全(DI)、关节活动过度、身材矮小和进行性骨骼畸形。据报道,成人成骨不全症(OI)患者会出现心脏瓣膜功能障碍和主动脉根部扩张等心血管并发症,更常见于3型成骨不全症(OI)患者[Radunovic等,2011]。下面更详细地描述了几个相关的特征。蓝巩膜几篇主要评论和至少一部专着[Smars,1961;Sillence等,1979;Sillence等;1993]得出结论,在患有“蓝色巩膜”的患者中,巩膜的颜色与Wedgewood蓝色的色调相似,并且非常独特,以至于巩膜看起来像是涂了漆。当存在“蓝色硬化”时,它们终生保持明显的蓝色。Berfenstam和Sm?rs在一项基于人群的研究中[1956]表明,两组成骨不全症(OI)患者(具有蓝灰色巩膜的患者和具有正常巩膜的患者)在表型症状和肌肉骨骼并发症模式方面存在统计学显着差异。对1979年维多利亚人口研究中95名1型和4型成骨不全症(OI)患者队列的数据进行了重新分析,以证实该发现[Sillence等,1993]。人们还注意到一种误解,即1型成骨不全症(OI)中的蓝灰色巩膜是由于巩膜变薄所致。Eichholtz和Muller[1972]曾报道1型成骨不全症(OI)的巩膜总厚度正常,巩膜胶原纤维之间的电子致密颗粒物质增加。有人提出,在1型成骨不全症(OI)的发病机制中,听力障碍、容易瘀伤和可能明显的关节过度活动最好用结缔组织成分的继发性失调来解释。有进一步的证据表明,导致成骨不全症(OI)1型表型的过早终止/无意义/剪接突变的高流行率与基质组成的改变有关[Byers和Cole,2002]。牙本质发育不全症(DI)牙本质发育不全症会导致牙齿明显变黄和明显透明,这些牙齿通常会过早磨损或折断。有些牙齿可能有特别灰的色调。受影响牙齿的放射学研究表明,它们的牙根短,冠-根连接处收缩[Bailleul-Forestier等,2008]。脊柱侧弯和基底压痕等继发性畸形脊柱侧弯和基底压痕等骨骼畸形被认为是继发性畸形,而不是原发性畸形。尽管长骨无畸形已被作为诊断标准提出,但畸形的存在似乎至少在一定程度上受到护理质量的显着影响。在发展中国家,畸形可能是次优护理的证据,反映出缺乏处理骨折的初级保健服务,而不是骨变形内在过程的证据。具有蓝色巩膜的非变形成骨不全症(OI)—成骨不全症(OI)类型11型成骨不全症(OI)的特征是骨脆性增加,这通常与低骨量、明显的蓝灰色巩膜以及在青春期和青年期开始的传导性听力损失的易感性有关。长骨或脊柱的畸形并不常见,发生脊柱侧凸的地方通常是特发性脊柱侧凸。1型成骨不全症(OI)是欧洲衍生社区中最常见的成骨不全症(OI)类型,出生率约为1:25,000活产,人口频率相似[Steineretal.,2013]。骨折频率和通常轻微的长骨和脊柱畸形意味着它通常被认为是轻度严重的,但偶尔它是中度严重的,特别是当存在牙本质发育不全症(DI)时[Paterson等,1983]。在一些具有这种特征的家庭中观察到牙本质发育不全症(DI),而在其他家庭中则没有。Paterson及其同事表明,患有1型成骨不全症(OI)和牙本质发育不全症(DI)的患者比没有牙本质发育不全症(DI)的患者更容易在出生时发生骨折(25%对6%)。此外,1型成骨不全症(OI)和牙本质发育不全症(DI)患者的骨折频率更高,身材矮小更严重,骨骼畸形更多。两个亚组都有相似的关节过度活动、瘀伤、耳聋和关节脱位的频率[Patersonetal.,1983]。到40岁时,超过50%的1型成骨不全症(OI)患者可检测到由传导性和感音神经性损失引起的听力损伤[Kuurila等,2002;Swinnen等,2011]。眩晕是许多成骨不全症(OI)患者的麻烦症状,包括1型成骨不全症(OI)[Kuurila等,2003]。许多研究报告了具有常染色体显性遗传和可变表达的家族。蓝巩膜的外显率接近100%,但临床骨折的发生率仅为90-95%[Smars,1961;Sillence等人,1979]。一般变异性成骨不全症(OI)—成骨不全症(OI)类型4这些患者有反复骨折、骨质疏松症和不同程度的长骨和脊柱畸形,但巩膜正常。巩膜在出生时可能呈蓝色,但在儿童时期蓝色调会逐渐消失。听力障碍并不常见。由于后颅窝底抬高的基底压痕导致的后颅窝压迫综合征的患病率增加。患有牙本质发育不全症(DI)的4型成骨不全症(OI)患者发生基底压痕的相对风险高5倍[Sillence,1994]。约30%的4型成骨不全症(OI)患者在筛查时有基底印象,但其中只有16%有症状[Sillence,1994]。具有正常巩膜的常见成骨不全症(OI)偶尔表现为常染色体隐性遗传[vanDijketal.,2010]和X连锁遗传[vanDijketal.,2013],但它通常作为常染色体显性遗传病遗传(表1)。家庭内部的严重程度差异很大。很多家庭中有许多人患有轻度成骨不全症(OI),但同一家庭中有少数人患有中度严重的成骨不全症(OI)[Holcomb,1931;Seedorf,1949]。逐渐变形的成骨不全症(OI)–成骨不全症(OI)类型33型成骨不全症(OI)患者通常有新生儿或婴儿表现,骨骼脆弱和多处骨折导致骨骼进行性畸形。他们通常在足月或接近足月出生,出生体重正常,出生身长通常正常,但由于出生时下肢畸形可能会缩短。虽然巩膜在出生时可能是蓝色的,但对许多患有这种综合征的患者的观察表明,随着年龄的增长,巩膜的蓝色逐渐变淡[Sillence等,1986年]。持续存在的蓝色巩膜通常表示1型非变形成骨不全症(OI)1型胶原基因的无意义突变或移码突变,而患有各种常染色体隐性遗传疾病的患者通常会出现灰白色巩膜[Byers和Pyott,2012]。所有患者的纵向生长都较差,身高远低于年龄和性别的第三个百分位。进行性脊柱侧凸在儿童时期发展并发展到青春期。患有此综合征的儿童尚未报告听力受损,但成人听力损失更为常见。牙本质发育不全症(DI)是一个可变特征。出生时,放射学研究显示全身性骨质减少和多发性骨折。随着长骨干的频繁过度损伤与修复,弓形和成角畸形存在不同程度。在几周到几个月内,在一些婴儿中,长骨干的发育不足会导致“宽骨”外观。从几岁开始,干骺端的密度和不规则性增加。这些被指定为“爆米花”外观的干骺端变化可能只会在青春期后完全消退。肋骨变薄,骨质疏松,并随着扁平椎的增加而逐渐拥挤。头骨显示出多个Wormian骨骼,尽管这些骨骼可能要到几周到几个月大时才会明显[Sillence等,1979;Sillence等,1986;Spranger等,2003;vanDijk等,2011]。过去,大约三分之二的患者在20岁时死亡。死亡通常由骨骼胸壁畸形的并发症引起,包括脊柱侧凸、肺动脉高压和心肺功能衰竭。使用目前的治疗选择,特别是循环静脉内帕米膦酸盐的双膦酸盐治疗[Glorieuxetal.,1998]在婴儿期开始,可以预期今天大多数3型成骨不全症(OI)患者将存活到成年生活。几项研究表明,管理严重成骨不全症(OI)儿童的专业中心在婴儿3岁时开始循环静脉注射帕米膦酸盐,从而大大降低骨折频率和接近正常生长速度[Plotkin等,2000年;DiMeglio等,2004;Munns等,2005年;Astrom等,2007]。最近的一份出版物证实,治疗似乎具有良好的耐受性,并且与骨密度增加、骨折频率降低和椎体形状改善有关[Alcausin等,2013]。围产期致死性成骨不全症(OI)综合征——2型成骨不全症(OI)这组胎儿和儿童的骨骼、关节和骨骼外特征极为严重。围产期致死率是一个结果,而不是一个诊断特征。在妊娠18-20周检测到的胎儿长骨短而皱缩,长骨弯曲或成角畸形,面部和颅骨骨化明显不足。在妊娠早期,可能很少有肋骨骨折,但在子宫内每个月都会出现肋骨骨折,导致连续的串珠状外观和皱缩(手风琴状)的长骨,这是极端严重的一端的特征,以成骨不全症(OI)2型(成骨不全症(OI)类型2-A)为代表[Sillence等,1984]。根据我们的经验,循环静脉注射帕米膦酸治疗并不适用,因为骨形成如此受损,关节受限如此严重,几乎没有任何正常童年生活经历的机会。使用简单的镇痛剂或皮下吗啡来缓解疼痛特别有价值,可以改善舒适度和呼吸。在2型成骨不全症(OI)的骨骼外特征中,神经病理学发现如脑迁移缺陷和/或白质改变已在有限数量的病例中得到报道[Emeryetal.,1999]。有些婴儿的表型不太严重,肋骨骨折较少(成骨不全症(OI)2-B型)[Sillence等,1984],因此它们可能与成骨不全症(OI)3型重叠[Spranger,1984]。这些婴儿很少能存活下来,即使是成年,也可以通过循环静脉注射帕米膦酸盐治疗“获救”。在发达国家,许多或大多数2型成骨不全症(OI)儿童目前在产前诊断(通过超声和DNA分析),通常导致妊娠终止。平均出生身长和体重小于第50个百分位数[Sillence等,1984]。大腿外展并外旋。由于多处肋骨骨折引起的疼痛以及受影响最严重的每根肋骨骨折愈伤组织半连续串珠的异常生物力学特性,因此妊娠期胸部较小,呼吸运动可能受到抑制。一些临床特征表明,患有2型成骨不全症(OI)的新生儿会持续疼痛。由于多处骨折,他们可能会出汗过多、脸色苍白、被触摸时表现出焦虑并且四肢很少活动。五分之一死产,90%死于4周龄[Sillenceetal.,1984]。骨间膜钙化的成骨不全症(OI)——成骨不全症(OI)类型5具有中度至重度骨脆性的5型成骨不全症(OI)最初由Battle和Shattock[1908]定义为前臂和下肢骨间膜进行性钙化的一种成骨不全症(OI)。独立地,它是通过增加增生性愈伤组织的倾向来识别的。Bauze等详细描述了该综合征[1975],他观察到10%的中度至重度成骨不全症(OI)且巩膜正常的患者患有5型成骨不全症(OI)[Bauze等,1975]。在一项针对4型中重度成骨不全症(OI)的组织形态学研究中,检测到26例中有7例(25%)具有骨组织形态学异常,这是5型成骨不全症(OI)的特征[Glorieux等,2000]。在临床研究中,它约占在医院就诊的成骨不全症(OI)患者的5%。从生命早期就可以观察到前臂骨间膜的钙化,这会导致旋前和旋后受限,并最终导致桡骨头脱位。巩膜是白色的,不存在DI和Wormian骨头。那些受影响的人往往具有较高的血清碱性磷酸酶值,并且在骨折或整形外科手术后发生增生性愈伤组织的风险增加。特征性骨组织形态学进一步支持了一种独特的发病机制,该组织形态学显示粗网状层状结构,可将5型成骨不全症(OI)与4型成骨不全症(OI)区分开来[Glorieux等,2000]。增生性骨痂是5型成骨不全症(OI)患者罕见的医疗急症。其特征是骨折部位有肿块骨痂并伴有肿胀和疼痛,可能与应力性骨折一样轻微。及时使用消炎痛,一种抗炎COX-1和COX-2前列腺素抑制剂,已被推荐用于避免愈伤组织的进展,尽管尚未报告随机临床试验[Glorieuxetal.,2000;Cho和Moffat,2014]。成骨不全症(OI)的分子遗传学目前,已鉴定出1,000多个杂合COL1A1/2突变(https://oi.gene.le.ac.uk,2013年4月1日访问)[Dalgleish,1997,1998]。突变类型和位置影响表型,因此在一定程度上存在基因型-表型关系。常染色体显性成骨不全症(OI)(OI类型1-5)在大多数来自欧洲血统的受影响个体中,1-4型成骨不全症(OI)是由COL1A1/2基因的杂合突变引起的,该基因分别编码I型胶原蛋白的alpha1和alpha2链(图1)。表3.3描述了I型胶原的生物合成。由于父母之一的杂合显性突变的性腺嵌合体,可能会发生没有受累父母的兄弟姐妹[ByersandCole,2002]。1型成骨不全症(OI)患者和有时4型成骨不全症(OI)患者的1型原胶原合成减少约50%(定量或单倍体不足效应),通常是由于一个COL1A1等位基因的杂合突变(无意义、移码和剪接位点改变)导致mRNA不稳定性和单倍体不足。其他原因是整个COL1A1等位基因缺失或甘氨酸被COL1A1或COL1A2等位基因中三螺旋结构域氨基末端附近的小氨基酸(半胱氨酸、丙氨酸和丝氨酸)取代[vanDijk等,2012]。管单个细胞的胶原蛋白合成减少了50%,但这些患者的新骨形成高于平均水平,这是稳态机制的结果,增加了骨形成单位的数量。这种新骨形成的增加与骨转换的增加有关,因此净效应是每年的骨质流失量很小,如果因骨折或疼痛不能活动,骨质流失会加剧[Rauch和Glorieux,2004]。北美和欧洲的大多数2-4型成骨不全症(OI)病例是显性遗传的,并且大多数病例是由于导致甘氨酸替代的杂合COL1A1/2突变所致。一般而言,羧基末端附近的甘氨酸取代似乎导致最严重的表型。不太常见的突变包括剪接位点改变、插入/删除/复制突变,这些突变导致框内序列改变和羧基末端原肽编码域的变异[vanDijk等,2012]杂合突变破坏了类型的三螺旋组装I型胶原蛋白多肽,导致负责I型(原)胶原蛋白翻译后修饰的酶过度加工,从而产生异常I型胶原蛋白。这种翻译后过度修饰可通过SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳证明。突变和正常I型胶原蛋白链的交织导致异常I型胶原蛋白的产生,该蛋白迅速降解(显性负效应)。最近,两份独立文献阐明了5型成骨不全症(OI)的遗传原因[Choetal.,2012;Semleretal.,2012]并由IFITM5(c.-14C>T)的5‘UTR(非翻译区)中的杂合C>T转换组成。IFITM5编码干扰素诱导的跨膜蛋白5,该蛋白的表达已显示在小鼠和大鼠早期矿化阶段的成骨细胞形成过程中达到峰值[Hanagata等,2011]。常染色体隐性成骨不全症(OI)(OI类型2-4)过去已经在南部非洲的黑人人群中发现了一种相对较高频率的严重的常染色体隐性3型成骨不全症(OI)[Wallis等,1993](表3)。如今,还已知1.5%的西非人和0.4%的非裔美国人携带LEPRE1的创始人突变[Cabraletal.,2012]。在过去的6年中,已经在2-4型成骨不全症(OI)中发现了参与I型胶原生物合成和翻译后修饰的基因的隐性突变。最近对这些进行了深入审查[ByersandPyott,2012]。隐性突变涉及编码参与I型胶原蛋白生物合成的蛋白质的基因,可细分为(i)负责alpha1链中一个特定残基(P986)的3-脯氨酰羟基化的酶复合物[vanDijk等,2012]并且可能用于启动链对齐和螺旋折叠[Pyott等,2011](CRTAP、LEPRE1、PPIB);(ii)胶原蛋白三螺旋(SERPINH1,FKBP10)的质量控制检查;(iii)I型折叠(前)胶原蛋白链的后期加工,即三螺旋端肽中赖氨酸残基的羟基化对于I型胶原蛋白在骨骼中的交联很重要[vanDijketal.,2012](PLOD2,FKBP10)和裂解C前肽(BMP1)[Martínez-Glez等,2012](图1)。此外,在编码Osterix的SP7(一种成骨细胞特异性转录因子)、可能参与骨形成和重建的SERPINF1[vanDijk等,2012]和编码三聚体细胞内阳离子通道的TMEM38B[Shaheen等,2012;Volodarsky等,2013]。最近描述的WNT1突变,编码参与成骨细胞分化和增殖的信号肽[Fahiminiya等,2013;Keupp等,2013;Laine等,2013]以及与FRIZZLED及其配体LRP5的相互作用,其中后者的突变已知会导致患有严重综合征性成骨不全症(OI)的患者,预测对来自内婚人群的严重成骨不全症(OI)患者的进一步研究将揭示突变机制在WNT-β连环蛋白信号通路的后续步骤中。最近,在一个具有严重进行性畸形成骨不全症(OI)表型的家族中发现了CREB3L1的纯合缺失。CREB3L1编码内质网应激传感器OASIS,该传感器已在小鼠模型中显示可与Col1a1启动子中的成骨细胞特异性UPRE(未折叠蛋白反应元件)调节区结合。这一发现扩大了成骨不全症(OI)的遗传异质性,并说明了ER应激在成骨不全症(OI)病理生理学中的作用[Symoensetal.,2013]。在隐性基因中发现的致病性突变(Dalgleish,R:成骨不全变异数据库(https://oi.gene.le.ac.uk,2013年4月1日访问),主要是纯合子或复合杂合子功能丧失突变,导致在两个无效等位基因中,正常蛋白质的产生严重减少或没有。X连锁成骨不全症(OI)骨质疏松症和骨折的X连锁遗传仅在D.Sillence的论文(Pedigree41,附录)[Sillence,1980]中有过一次报道。最近,发现编码plastin-3的PLS3中的功能丧失突变是一种形式的X连锁骨质疏松症伴骨折的原因[vanDijk等,2013]。在半合子男性中,PLS3的致病性突变与通常在儿童时期发生的中轴和四肢骨骼的骨质疏松症和骨质疏松性骨折有关。杂合子女性成员的临床表现是多变的,范围从正常的骨矿物质密度和没有骨折到早发性骨质疏松症。受影响的男性没有成骨不全症(OI)的骨骼外特征,但表型在许多其他类型的成骨不全症(OI)患者中无法区分,它可能最适合常见变量成骨不全症(OI)(OI类型4)组,其中不到50%的患者具有头骨中的Wormian骨和巩膜等特征,颜色正常,儿童期呈蓝色,成人后逐渐褪色。结论从医学遗传学家的角度来看,核心原则是个体的表型分析(畸形学)以及这些家族在遗传模式和表型变异性方面的研究。1979年的成骨不全症(OI)分类是畸形学的重要性和可能性的典型例子,因为它根据临床/放射学特征和遗传,结合成骨不全症(OI)具有遗传异质性的假设,对四种成骨不全症(OI)综合征进行了描述,许多人证实了这一点多年后通过分子遗传学研究。目前,据推测,下一代测序等分子技术将减少对表型分析的需求。然而,本文描述的新成骨不全症(OI)命名法和严重程度分级量表强调了表型分析对于诊断、分类和评估成骨不全症(OI)严重程度的重要性。这将使患者及其家人深入了解疾病的可能病程,并使医生能够评估治疗效果。结合对特定分子遗传原因的了解,仔细的临床描述是开发和评估包括成骨不全症(OI)在内的遗传性疾病患者治疗的起点。后者是我们在未来十年面临的最大挑战。SEVERITYGRADINGINOSTEOGENESISIMPERFECTASYNDROMESIntheyearsfollowingthediscoveryofCOL1A1/2mutationsinallOItypes,thefourOItypeswereoftenusedinclinicalpracticetoreflectseveritywithmild(OItype1),lethal(OItype2),severelydeforming(OItype3),andmoderatelydeforming(OItype4).AlthoughtheINCDSagreedtoretaintheSillenceclassificationas“theprototypicanduniversallyacceptedwaytoclassifythedegreeofseverityinOI”[Warmanetal.,2011],theneedforinternationallyagreedcriteriaforgradingseveritybetweenaffectedindividualswasproposedandadopted,reflectingalsotheimprovedtreatmentpossibilities(surgical,pharmacologicalandconservative)forpatientswithOI.Theseveritygradingscaleproposedherereliesonclinical,historicaldata,fracturefrequency,bonedensitometry,andlevelofmobility(Table(Table3).3).ThisseveritygradingwasadoptedforthePOISE(PediatricOsteogenesisImperfectaSafetyandEfficacystudy)ofRisedronateinosteogenesisimperfectain231childrenascertainedfrom22investigatorsdrawnfrom11countries[MunnsandSillence,2013;Bishopetal.,2013].ThegradingforthePOISEstudyismodifiedherebytheauthorswithadditionofageneralguidelinetoprenatalclinicalandultrasonographicfindings.ThescalewillrequirefurthervalidationbycollaborationbetweenCentresofExpertisewithsufficientpatientsandaccesstofacilitiesforcomprehensiveassessmentinordertofurtherconfirmandclarifyitsclinicalutility.CLINICALPRESENTATIONSANDFEATURESOFOSTEOGENESISIMPERFECTAClinicalPresentationsandFeaturesofOIinGeneralPrimaryfeature:liabilitytofracturesandosteoporosisWhileliabilitytofracturesthroughoutlifeisthesinglemostimportantclinicalfeature,experiencewithfamilieswithOItype1indicatethatperhaps10%ofaffectedindividualshavenothadalongbonefractureduringchildhood[Sillence,1980].However,newertechniquesformeasuringbonedensity,suchasdualenergyX-rayabsorptiometry(DXA)oftheskeleton[Luetal.,1994]and/ormorerecentlyperipheralquantativecomputerizedtomography(pQCT)[Gattietal.,2003;Folkestadetal.,2012]offorearmandleg,frequentlyrevealsignificantlyreducedbonedensityinaleastoneareaoftheskeletoninthoseindividualswhobyformalgeneticanalysishaveOI(Table3).Netbonefragilityisthefinalresultofcontributionsfromprimarybonefragilityandthesecondaryfragilityresultingfromosteoporosis.OsteoporosisdevelopsinthemajorityofpatientswithOI.ThefindingofelevatedserumandurinemarkersofboneturnoverinpatientswithOIconsideredalongwiththefindingsofbonehistomorphometry,isbestexplainedbyacombinationofincreasedboneformationandincreasedboneresorption[RauchandGlorieux,2004].Theneteffectisasmallprogressivebonelosssinceboneresorptionisoftengreaterthanboneformation,withimmobilizationalsoexertinganegativeeffectonboneformation.Bisphosphonatetreatmentaimedatreductionofosteoclastactivity,isinitiatedinmanychildrenwithOIaftercarefulassessmentbythetreatingphysician.InthatregardcyclicaltreatmentwithintravenousbisphosphonateshasbecomethegoldstandardfortreatmentofchildrenwithmoderatetosevereOI.Averyrecentrandomized,double-blind,placebo-controlledtrialoforalRisedronateinchildrenwithOI,includingalargeproportionofmoremildtomoderatelyaffectedchildren,demonstratedasignificantreductioninfracturerisk,thusextendingthetherapeuticbenefitsofthistherapyinchildrenwithOI[Bishopetal.,2013].AssociatedfeaturesingeneralAssociatedfeaturesinsomeaffectedindividuals,butnotothers,includedistinctbluenessofthesclerae,youngadultonsethearingloss,dentinogenesisimperfect(DI),jointhypermobility,shortstature,andprogressiveskeletaldeformity.CardiovascularcomplicationssuchasvalvulardysfunctionandaorticrootdilatationhavebeenreportedinadultOIpatients,moreofteninpatientswithOItype3[Radunovicetal.,2011].Severalassociatedfeaturesaremoreelaboratelydescribedbelow.BlueScleraeSeveralmajorreviewsandatleastonemonograph[Smars,1961;Sillenceetal.,1979;Sillenceetal.,1993]concludedthatinpatientswith“bluesclerae”thecolorofthescleraeissimilartoWedgewoodblueinhueandissoverydistinctivethatthescleraeappearpainted.When“bluesclerotics”arepresent,theyremaindistinctlybluethroughoutlife.BerfenstamandSm?rsinapopulationbasedstudy[1956]showedthattherewerestatisticallysignificantdifferencesinpatternsofphenotypicsymptomsandmusculoskeletalcomplicationsbetweentwogroupsofpatientswithOI,thosewithblue-greyscleraeandthosewithnormalsclerae.Datafromacohortof95patientswithOItype1andOItype4inthe1979Victorianpopulationstudywerereanalysedtoconfirmthatfinding[Sillenceetal.,1993].Attentionwasalsodrawntothemisconceptionthattheblue-grayscleraeinOItype1areduetothethinningofthesclerae.EichholtzandMuller[1972]hadreportedthatoverallthicknessofthescleraeinOItype1wasnormalandtherewasincreasedelectrondensegranularmaterialbetweenscleralcollagenfibers.ItwasproposedthatinthepathogenesisofOItype1,thehearingimpairment,easybruisingandpossiblythemarkedjointhypermobilitywouldbebestexplainedbysecondarydysregulationofconnectivetissuecomposition.Thereisfurtherevidencethatthehighprevalenceofprematuretermination/nonsense/splicingmutationswhichcausetheOItype1phenotypeareassociatedwithalterationsinmatrixcomposition[ByersandCole,2002].DentinogenesisimperfectaDentinogenesisimperfectaproducesadistinctiveyellowingandapparenttransparencyoftheteeth,whichareoftenwornprematurelyorbroken.Someteethmayhaveaparticularlygreyishhue.Radiologicstudiesofaffectedteethshowthattheyhaveshortrootswithconstrictedcorono-radicularjunctions[Bailleul-Forestieretal.,2008].SecondarydeformationsSkeletaldeformitiessuchasscoliosisandbasilarimpressionareregardedassecondarydeformationsratherthanprimarymalformations.Althoughtheabsenceofdeformityoflongboneshasbeenadvancedasadiagnosticcriterion,thepresenceofdeformityseemsatleastpartlysignificantlyinfluencedbyqualityofcare.Indevelopingcountries,deformitymaybeevidenceofsub-optimalcarereflectinglackofprimarycareservicesformanagingfractures,ratherthanevidenceofanintrinsicprocessofbonedeformation.Non-DeformingOIWithBlueSclerae—OIType1OItype1ischaracterizedbyincreasedbonefragility,whichisusuallyassociatedwithlowbonemass,distinctlyblue-graysclerae,andsusceptibilitytoconductivehearinglosscommencinginadolescenceandyoungadultlife.Deformityoflongbonesorspineisuncommonandwherescoliosisdevelopsitiscommonlyanidiopathicscoliosis.OItype1isthemostcommonvarietyofOIinEuropeanderivedcommunitiesandhasabirthprevalenceintheorderof1:25,000livebirthsandasimilarpopulationfrequency[Steineretal.,2013].Fracturefrequencyandusuallymildlongboneandspinedeformitymeanthatitisgenerallyperceivedtobeofmildseveritybutoccasionallyitismoderatelysevere,particularlywhenDIispresent[Patersonetal.,1983].DIisobservedinsomefamilieswiththistraitandnotothers.PatersonandcolleaguesshowedthatpatientswithOItype1andDIaremorelikelytohavefracturesatbirth(25%vs.6%)thanthosewithoutDI.Furthermore,patientswithOItype1andDIhaveahigherfracturefrequency,moresevereshortstature,andmoreskeletaldeformity.Bothsubgroupshaveasimilarfrequencyofjointhypermobility,bruising,deafness,andjointdislocations[Patersonetal.,1983].Hearingimpairmentresultingfrombothconductiveandsensorineurallossisdetectableinover50%ofpatientswithOItype1by40yearsofage[Kuurilaetal.,2002;Swinnenetal.,2011].VertigoisatroublesomesymptominmanypeoplewithOIincludingOItype1[Kuurilaetal.,2003].Familieswithautosomaldominantinheritanceandvariableexpressivityhavebeenreportedinmanystudies.Penetranceforbluescleraeiscloseto100%butfrequencyofclinicalfracturesisonly90–95%[Smars,1961;Sillenceetal.,1979].CommonVariableOI—OIType4Thesepatientshaverecurrentfractures,osteoporosisandvariabledegreesofdeformityoflongbonesandspinebutnormalsclerae.Thescleraemaybebluishatbirthbutthebluetingefadesduringchildhood.Hearingimpairmentisnotoftenencountered.Posteriorfossacompressionsyndromesduetobasilarimpressionwithelevationoftheflooroftheposteriorcranialfossaareincreasedinprevalence.PatientswithOItype4whohaveDIhaveafivetimeshigherrelativeriskforbasilarimpression[Sillence,1994].Some30%ofpatientswithOItype4havebasilarimpressiononscreeningbutonly16%ofthesearesymptomatic[Sillence,1994].Commonvariableosteogenesisimperfectawithnormalscleraeshowsoccasionallyautosomalrecessive[vanDijketal.,2010]andX-linkedinheritance[vanDijketal.,2013]butitisusuallyinheritedasanautosomaldominantdisorder(Table1).Severityishighlyvariablewithinfamilies.ItisnotuncommontofindfamilieswheretherearemanyaffectedwithmildOIbutafewindividualsinthesamefamilywithmoderatelysevereOI[Holcomb,1931;Seedorf,1949].ProgressivelyDeformingOI–OIType3IndividualswithOItype3usuallyhavenewbornorinfantpresentationwithbonefragilityandmultiplefracturesleadingtoprogressivedeformityoftheskeleton.Theyaregenerallybornatorneartermandhavenormalbirthweightandoftennormalbirthlength,althoughthismaybereducedbecauseofdeformitiesofthelowerlimbsatbirth.Althoughthescleraemaybeblueatbirth,observationofmanypatientswiththissyndromedocumentsthatthescleraebecomeprogressivelylessbluewithage[Sillenceetal.,1986].Persistingbluescleraeareusuallyanindicationofnonsenseorframeshiftmutationsintype1collagengenescharacteristicofnon-deformingOItype1whereaspatientswiththevariousautosomalrecessivedisorderswillusuallyhavegrey-whitesclerae[ByersandPyott,2012].Allpatientshavepoorlongitudinalgrowthandfallwellbelowthethirdcentileinheightforageandsex.Progressivekyphoscoliosisdevelopsduringchildhoodandprogressesintoadolescence.Hearingimpairmenthasnotbeenreportedinchildrenwiththissyndromebuthearinglossismorefrequentinadults.DIisavariablefeature.Atbirth,radiographicstudiesshowgeneralizedosteopeniaandmultiplefractures.Bowingandangulationdeformitiesexisttoavariabledegreewithfrequentover-modelingoftheshaftsofthelongbones.Withinweekstomonths,insomeinfants,under-modelingoftheshaftsoflongbonesresultsina“broad-bone”appearance.Fromseveralyearsofage,metaphysesdevelopincreasingdensityandirregularity.Thesemetaphysealchangesdesignateda“pop-corn”appearancemayevolveonlytoresolvecompletelyafterpuberty.Theribsarethin,osteopenic,andprogressivelycrowdedasplatyspondylyincreases.TheskullshowsmultipleWormianbones,althoughthesemaynotbeevidentuntilseveralweekstomonthsofage[Sillenceetal.,1979;Sillenceetal.,1986;Sprangeretal.,2003;vanDijketal.,2011].Inthepast,approximatelytwo-thirdsofthepatientsdiedbytheendoftheseconddecade.Deathusuallyresultedfromthecomplicationsofskeletalchestwalldeformityincludingkyphoscoliosis,pulmonaryhypertension,andcardio-respiratoryfailure.Withthepresenttherapeuticoptions,specificallybisphosphonatetreatmentwithcyclicintravenousPamidronate[Glorieuxetal.,1998]commencedininfancy,itcanbeexpectedthattodaythemajorityofpatientswithOItype3willsurviveintoadultlife.SeveralstudiesdemonstratethatcentersofexpertisethatmanagechildrenwithsevereOI,achieveveryreducedfracturefrequencyandnearnormalgrowthvelocityininfantscommencedoncyclicintravenouspamidronateby3yearsofage[Plotkinetal.,2000;DiMeglioetal.,2004;Munnsetal.,2005;Astrometal.,2007].Arecentpublicationconfirmedthattreatmentappearstobewelltoleratedandassociatedwithanincreaseinbonedensity,reducedfracturefrequencyandimprovedvertebralshape[Alcausinetal.,2013].PerinatallyLethalOISyndromes—OIType2Theskeletal,joint,andextraskeletalfeaturesofthisgroupoffetusesandchildrenareextremelysevere.Perinatallethalityisanoutcomeratherthanadiagnosticfeature.Fetusesdetectedat18–20weeksgestationhaveshortcrumpledlongbones,bowingorangulationdeformitiesoflongbonesandmarkeddeficiencyofossificationoffacialandskullbones.Atthisearlygestation,theremaybefewribfracturesbutwitheachmonthinuterothereisprogressivefracturingofribsresultinginthecontinuouslybeadedappearancecombinedwithcrumpled(accordion-like)longbonesthatischaracteristicoftheextremelysevereendofthespectrumrepresentedbyOItype2(OItype2-A)[Sillenceetal.,1984].Inourexperience,treatmentwithcyclicintravenouspamidronateisnotindicatedasboneformationissoimpairedandjointrestrictionsoseverethereisvirtuallynochanceofanynormalchildhoodlifeexperience.Painreliefwithsimpleanalgesicsorsubcutaneousmorphineisparticularlyvaluable,improvingcomfortandbreathing.AmongtheextraskeletalfeaturesinOItype2,neuropathologicalfindingssuchasbrainmigrationaldefectsand/orwhitematterchangeshavebeenreportedinalimitednumberofcases[Emeryetal.,1999].Somebabieshaveaphenotypewhichisalittlelessseverewithfewerribfractures(OItype2-B)[Sillenceetal.,1984]andassuchtheycanshowoverlapwithOItype3[Spranger,1984].Rarelythesebabiessurvive,eventoadultlifeandcanbe“rescued”withtreatmentwithcyclicintravenouspamidronate.Indevelopedcountries,manyormostchildrenwithOItype2areatpresentdiagnosedprenatally(byultrasoundandDNAanalysis),oftenresultinginterminationofpregnancy.Meanbirthlengthandweightarelessthanthefiftiethcentile[Sillenceetal.,1984].Thethighsareheldabductedandinexternalrotation.Thechestissmallforgestationandrespiratoryexcursionmaybedepressedbecauseofthepainfrommultipleribfracturesandtheabnormalbiomechanicalpropertiesofsemicontinuousbeadingfromfracturecallusalongeachribinthemostseverelyaffected.SeveralclinicalfeaturessuggestthatnewbornswithOItype2areinconstantpain.Theymayhaveexcessiveperspiration,pallor,showanxietyatbeingtouchedandmovetheirlimbsverylittlebecauseofmultiplefractures.One-fiftharestillbornand90%dieby4weeksofage[Sillenceetal.,1984].OIWithCalcificationinInterosseousMembranes—OIType5OItype5withmoderatetoseverebonefragilitywasoriginallydefinedbyBattleandShattock[1908]asatypeofOIwithprogressivecalcificationoftheinter-osseousmembranesintheforearmsandlegs.Independentlyitwasidentifiedbyincreasedpropensitytodevelophyperplasticcallus.ThesyndromewasdelineatedinsomedetailbyBauzeetal.[1975],whoobservedthat10%ofpatientswithmoderatetosevereOIandnormalsclerae,hadOItype5[Bauzeetal.,1975].InahistomorphometricstudyofmoderatelysevereOItype4,7of26cases(25%)weredetectedwithabnormalbonehistomorphometrywhichischaracteristicofOItype5[Glorieuxetal.,2000].Inclinicalstudiesitaccountsforapproximately5%ofindividualswithOIseeninahospitalsetting.Calcificationoftheinter-osseousmembraneintheforearmsisobservedfromearlyinlife,whichleadstorestrictionofpronationandsupination,andeventualdislocationoftheradialheads.ThescleraearewhiteandDIandWormianbonesarenotpresent.Thoseaffectedtendtohavehigherserumalkalinephosphatasevaluesandhaveanincreasedriskofdevelopinghyperplasticcallusfollowingafractureororthopaedicsurgery.Adistinctpathogenesisisfurthersupportedbycharacteristicbonehistomorphometrywhichshowscoarsemesh-likelamellationwhichdistinguishesOItype5fromOItype4[Glorieuxetal.,2000].HyperplasticcallusisararemedicalemergencyoccurringinpatientswithOItype5.Thisischaracterizedbymassivecalluswithswellingandpainatthesiteofafracture,whichmaybeasminorasastressfracture.Promptuseofindomethacin,ananti-inflammatoryCOX-1andCOX-2prostaglandininhibitorhasbeenrecommendedtoavertprogressalthoughofthecallusalthougharandomizedclinicaltrialhasnotbeenreported[Glorieuxetal.,2000;ChoandMoffat,2014].MOLECULARGENETICSOFOICurrently,morethan1,000heterozygousCOL1A1/2mutationshavebeenidentified(https://oi.gene.le.ac.uk,accessedApril12013)[Dalgleish,1997,1998].Mutationtypeandpositioninfluencethephenotypeandassuchgenotype–phenotyperelationsexisttosomeextent.AutosomalDominantOI(OITypes1-5)InthemajorityofaffectedindividualsfromEuropeandescent,OItypes1–4resultfromheterozygousmutationsintheCOL1A1/2genesencodingrespectivelythealpha1andalpha2chainsofcollagentypeI(Fig.1).ThebiosynthesisofcollagentypeIhasbeendepictedinTable?Table3.3.Siblingrecurrencewithoutanaffectedparentmayoccurduetogonadalmosaicismforheterozygousdominantmutationsinoneoftheparents[ByersandCole,2002].PatientswithOItype1andsometimesOItype4haveanapproximately50%reduction(quantitativeorhaploinsufficiencyeffect)inthesynthesisoftype1procollagenoftenduetoheterozygousmutationsinoneCOL1A1allele(nonsense,frameshift,andsplicesitealterations)leadingtomRNAinstabilityandhaploinsufficiency.OthercausesaredeletionsofthewholeCOL1A1alleleorsubstitutionsforglycinebysmallaminoacids(cysteine,alanine,andserine)neartheamino-terminalendsofthetriplehelicaldomainsineitheroneCOL1A1orCOL1A2allele[vanDijketal.,2012].Notwithstandingthe50%reductionincollagensynthesisfromindividualcells,thesepatientshaveaboveaveragenewboneformation,theresultofhomeostaticmechanisms,whichincreasethenumberofboneformingunits.Thisincreasednewboneformationislinkedtoincreasedboneturnoversothattheneteffectisasmallannualboneloss,whichisexaggeratedifthereisimmobilizationbecauseoffracturesorpain[RauchandGlorieux,2004].ThemajorityofcasesofOItype2–4inNorthAmericaandEuropearedominantlyinheritedandmostcasesareduetoheterozygousCOL1A1/2mutationsthatresultinsubstitutionsforglycine.Ingeneral,glycinesubstitutionsnearthecarboxyl-terminalendappeartoresultintheseverestphenotype.Lesscommonmutationsincludesplicesitealterations,insertion/deletion/duplicationeventsthatleadtoin-framesequencealterationsandvariantsinthecarboxyl-terminalpropeptidecoding-domains[vanDijketal.,2012]TheheterozygousmutationsdisrupttriplehelicalassemblyoftypeIcollagenpolypeptides,resultinginoverprocessingbytheenzymesresponsibleforpost-translationalmodificationof(pro)collagentypeIandconsequentlyproductionofabnormalcollagentypeI.Thispost-translationalover-modificationisdemonstrablebySDS–polyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis.TheintertwiningofmutatedandnormalcollagentypeIchainsresultinproductionofabnormalcollagentypeIprotein,whichisrapidlydegraded(dominant-negativeeffect).Recently,thegeneticcauseofOItype5hasbeenelucidatedintwoindependentpublications[Choetal.,2012;Semleretal.,2012]andconsistsofaheterozygousC>Ttransitioninthe5′UTR(untranslatedregion)ofIFITM5(c.-14C>T).IFITM5encodesInterferoninducedtransmembraneprotein5,theexpressionofthisproteinhasbeenshowntopeakduringosteoblastformationintheearlymineralizationstageinmiceandrats[Hanagataetal.,2011].AutosomalRecessiveOI(OItypes2-4)Asevere,autosomalrecessiveformofOItype3withacomparativelyhighfrequencyhadalreadybeenrecognizedinthepastintheblackpopulationsofsouthernAfrica[Wallisetal.,1993](Table?(Table3).3).Nowadays,itisalsoknownthatafoundermutationinLEPRE1iscarriedby1.5%ofWestAfricansand0.4%ofAfricanAmericans[Cabraletal.,2012].RecessivemutationsingenesinvolvedincollagentypeIbiosynthesisandpost-translationalmodificationhavebeenidentifiedinOItypes2–4inthelast6years.Thesewererecentlyreviewedindepth[ByersandPyott,2012].TherecessivemutationsconcerngenesencodingproteinsinvolvedincollagentypeIbiosynthesis,canbesubdividedinto(i)anenzymaticcomplexresponsiblefor3-prolylhydroxylationofonespecificresidue(P986)inthealpha1chain[vanDijketal.,2012]andprobablyforinitiatingchainalignmentandhelicalfolding[Pyottetal.,2011](CRTAP,LEPRE1,PPIB);(ii)qualitycontrolcheckofthecollagentriplehelix(SERPINH1,FKBP10);(iii)lateprocessingoffolded(pro)collagentypeIchainsi.e.hydroxylationoflysineresiduesintriplehelicaltelopeptidesimportantforcollagentypeIcross-linkinginbone[vanDijketal.,2012](PLOD2,FKBP10)andcleavageoftheC-propeptide(BMP1)[Martínez-Glezetal.,2012](Fig.1).Furthermore,recessivemutationshavebeenreportedinSP7encodingOsterix,anosteoblastspecifictranscriptionfactor,inSERPINF1possiblyinvolvedinboneformationandremodeling[vanDijketal.,2012]andinTMEM38Bencodingatrimericintracellularcationchannel[Shaheenetal.,2012;Volodarskyetal.,2013].TherecentdelineationofmutationsinWNT1,encodingasignalingpeptideinvolvedinosteoblastdifferentiationandproliferation[Fahiminiyaetal.,2013;Keuppetal.,2013;Laineetal.,2013]andtheinteractionwithFRIZZLEDanditscoligandLRP5,inwhichmutationsinthelatterareknowntoresultinpatientswithseveresyndromicOI,predictthatfurtherstudyofpatientswithsevereOIfromendogamouspopulationswilluncovermutationalmechanismsinthesubsequentstepsoftheWNT-BetaCateninsignalingpathway.Mostrecently,ahomozygousdeletionofCREB3L1wasidentifiedinafamilywithasevereprogressivelydeformingOIphenotype.CREB3L1encodestheER-stresstransducerOASISthathasbeenshowninamurinemodeltobindtotheosteoblast-specificUPRE(unfoldedproteinresponseelement)regulatoryregionintheCol1a1promotor.ThisfindingexpandsthegeneticheterogeneityinOIandillustratestheroleofER-stressinthepathophysiologyofOI[Symoensetal.,2013].Pathogenicmutationsfoundinrecessivegenes(Dalgleish,R:OsteogenesisImperfectaVariantDatabase(https://oi.gene.le.ac.uk,accessedApril12013),aremostlyhomozygousorcompoundheterozygousloss-of-functionmutationsthatresultintwonullalleleswithseverelydecreasedornoproductionofnormalprotein.X-linkedOIX-linkedinheritanceofosteoporosisandfractureshadbeenreportedonlyonceinthethesisofD.Sillence(Pedigree41,Appendix)[Sillence,1980].Recently,loss-of-functionmutationsinPLS3encodingplastin-3werediscoveredasacauseofoneformofX-linkedosteoporosiswithfractures[vanDijketal.,2013].Inhemizygousmen,pathogenicmutationsinPLS3wereassociatedwithosteoporosisandosteoporoticfracturesoftheaxialandappendicularskeletonusuallydevelopinginchildhood.Theclinicalpictureinheterozygousfemalememberswasvariableandrangedfromnormalbonemineraldensityandanabsenceoffracturestoearly-onsetosteoporosis.NoextraskeletalfeaturesofOIwerepresentinaffectedmen,butthephenotypeisindistinguishableinmanypatientswithothertypesofOI,itwouldprobablyfitbestinthecommonvariableOI(OItype4)group,ofwhomlessthan50%ofpatientshavefeaturessuchasWormianbonesintheskullandthescleraearenormalinhue,bluishinchildhoodandfadingtonormaladulthue.CONCLUSIONFromamedicalgeneticistpointofview,thecoreprincipleisphenotypingofindividuals(dysmorphology)andthestudyofthesefamilieswithregardtoinheritancepatternandphenotypicvariability.TheOIclassificationfrom1979isaclassicexampleoftheimportanceandpossibilitiesofdysmorphologysinceitledtothedelineationoffourOIsyndromesbasedonclinical/radiologicalfeaturesandinheritance,incombinationwiththeassumptionthatOIwasgeneticallyheterogeneous,whichwasconfirmedmanyyearslaterbymoleculargeneticstudies.Atpresenttime,ithasbeenpostulatedthatmoleculartechniquessuchasNext-GenerationSequencingwilldecreasetheneedforphenotyping.However,thenewOInomenclatureandtheSeverityGradingScaledescribedinthispaper,emphasizetheimportanceofphenotypinginordertodiagnose,classifyandassessseverityofOI.Thiswillprovidepatientsandtheirfamilieswithinsightintotheprobablecourseofthedisorderanditwillallowphysicianstoevaluatetheeffectoftherapy.AcarefulclinicaldescriptionincombinationwithknowledgeofthespecificmoleculargeneticcauseisthestartingpointfordevelopmentandassessmentoftherapyinpatientswithheritabledisordersincludingOI.Thelatteristhebiggestchallengewefaceintheupcomingdecade(s).Osteogenesisimperfecta:clinicaldiagnosis,nomenclatureandseverityassessmentAbstractRecently,thegeneticheterogeneityinosteogenesisimperfecta(OI),proposedin1979bySillenceetal.,hasbeenconfirmedwithmoleculargeneticstudies.Atpresent,17geneticcausesofOIandcloselyrelateddisordershavebeenidentifiedanditisexpectedthatmorewillfollow.UnlikemostreviewsthathavebeenpublishedinthelastdecadeonthegeneticcausesandbiochemicalprocessesleadingtoOI,thisreviewfocusesontheclinicalclassificationofOIandelaboratesonthenewlyproposedOIclassificationfrom2010,whichreturnedtoadescriptiveandnumericalgroupingoffiveOIsyndromicgroups.ThenewOInomenclatureandthepre-andpostnatalseverityassessmentintroducedinthisreview,emphasizetheimportanceofphenotypinginordertodiagnose,classify,andassessseverityofOI.Thiswillprovidepatientsandtheirfamilieswithinsightintotheprobablecourseofthedisorderanditwillallowphysicianstoevaluatetheeffectoftherapy.AcarefulclinicaldescriptionincombinationwithknowledgeofthespecificmoleculargeneticcauseisthestartingpointfordevelopmentandassessmentoftherapyinpatientswithheritabledisordersincludingOI.?2014TheAuthors.AmericanJournalofMedicalGeneticsPublishedbyWileyPeriodicals,Inc.ThisisanopenaccessarticleunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivsLicense,whichpermitsuseanddistributioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited,theuseisnon-commercialandnomodificationsoradaptationsaremade.Keywords:classification;collagentypeI;fractures;heterogeneity;osteogenesisimperfecta.FIG.1.OverviewofcollagentypeIbiosynthesis.CollagentypeIconsistsoftwoa1-chainsandonea2-chain.Aftertranslation,pro-a1-chainsandpro-a2chainsareprocessedintheroughEndoplasmicreticulum(rER).Thesechainshavetoaligninordertostartthefoldingprocessof(pro)collagentypeIintoatriplehelix.Thenextstepisalignmentofthethreechainsinordertocommencefoldingintoatriplehelicalstructure.Duringthisfoldingprocess,post-translationalmodificationbyspecificproteinstakesplace.Thegenesencodingproteinsinvolvedinpost-translationalmodificationandinwhichmutationshavebeenreportedtocauseOI,aredepictedinthisfigure.AftertransportofprocollagentypeItotheGolgicomplexandfollowingexocytosisintotheextracellularmatrix,cleavageoftheC-andN-propeptidesresultsinformationofcollagentypeI.Subsequently,cross-linkingofcollagentypeImoleculesleadstoformationoffibrils.MultiplecollagentypeIfibrilsformintocollagenfibers,importantconstituentsofbone.TABLEIII.Pre-andPostnatalSeverityGradingScaleofOsteogenesisImperfectaMildOI(PatientswithmildOImostoftenhaveOItype1or4)Ultrasoundfindingsat20weeksofpregnancyNointra-uterinelongbonefracturesorbowingPostnatalRarelycongenitalfracturesNormalornearnormalgrowthvelocityandheightStraightlongbonesi.e.nointrinsiclongbonedeformityFullyambulantotherthanattimesofacutefractureMinimalvertebralcrushfracturesLumbarspinebonemineraldensityZ-scoreusually>1.5(1.5to?1.5)Annualizedfracturerateoflessthanorequalto1.Absenceofchronicbonepainorminimalpaincontrolledbysimpleanalgesics.Regularschoolattendance,i.e.,doesnotmissschoolduetopain,lethargy,orfatigue.ModerateOIUltrasoundfindingsat20weeksofpregnancyRarelyfetallongbonefracturesorbowing(butmayincreaseinthelasttrimester)Postnatal(Notmodifiedbybisphosphonatetherapy)OccasionallycongenitalfracturesDecreasedgrowthvelocityandheightAnteriorbowingoflegsandthighsBowingoflongbonesrelatedtoimmobilizationforrecurrentfracturesVertebralcrushfracturesLumbarspinebonemineraldensityZ-scoreusually>2.5to<1.5)butawiderangeAnnualizedprepubertalfracturerategreaterthan1(average3withawiderange)Absentfromschoolduetopainmorethan5daysperyear.SevereOIUltrasoundfindingsat20weeksofpregnancyShorteningoflongbonesFracturesand/orbowingoflongboneswithsomeunder-modelingSlenderribswithabsentordiscontinuousribfractures(casesintermediatebetweensevereandextremelyseverehavefewribfracturesbutcrumpledlongbones)DecreasedmineralizationPostnatal(notmodifiedbybisphosphonatetherapy)MarkedimpairmentoflineargrowthWheel-chairdependentProgressivedeformityoflongbonesandspine(unrelatedtofractures)MultiplevertebralcrushfracturesLumbarspinebonemineraldensityZ-scoreusually<3.0(widerangewithagecomparisonasmeasurementissize/heightdependent)Annualizedprepubertalfracturerategreaterthan3fracturesperannum(agedependent)ChronicbonepainunlesstreatedwithbisphosphonatesSchoolattendancecharacterizedbyabsencesforfracturecareandfatigueorpainExtremelySevereOIUltrasoundfindingsat20weeksofpregnancyShorteningoflongbonesFracturesand/orbowingoflongboneswithsevereunder-modelingleadingtocrumpled(concertina-like)longbonesThickcontinuouslybeadedribsduetomultiplesitesoffractureorthinribs(previouslydescribedasOItype2-Aand2-B,respectively)DecreasedmineralizationPostnatalThighsheldinfixedabductionandexternalrotationwithlimitationofmovementofmostjointsClinicalindicatorsofseverechronicpain(pallor,sweatiness,whimperingorgrimacingonpassivemovement)Decreasedossificationofskull,multiplefracturesoflongbonesandribs.Smallthorax.Shortenedcompactedfemurswithaconcertina-likeappearanceAllvertebraehypoplastic/crushedRespiratorydistressleadingtoperinataldeathPerinatallylethalcourse文献出处:FSVanDijk1,DOSillence.Osteogenesisimperfecta:clinicaldiagnosis,nomenclatureandseverityassessmentReview,AmJMedGenetA.2014Jun;164A(6):1470-81.doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.36545.
关注“瓷娃娃”一、问:有一种宝宝被人称为“瓷娃娃”,您能给大家介绍一下这是什么样的宝宝吗?姜海:大家好,“瓷娃娃”是患成骨不全症的儿童,形容患儿骨骼像瓷器一样容易摔碎,轻微的外力即可引起四肢骨折,严重的病例咳嗽,翻身等简单的日常行为都有可能引起肋骨骨折,脊柱骨折。该病是最常见的单基因遗传性骨病,以骨量低下、骨骼脆性增加和反复骨折为主要特征。该病已列入国家卫生健康委员会等5部门联合制定的《第一批罕见病目录》。二、问:哦,这是一种病,名称叫“成骨不全症”,还是罕见病。既然罕见,那这种患病的宝宝应该不多吧。姜海:该病虽然为罕见病,它的发病率新生儿在一万五至两万分之一。但中国的新生儿一年的数量巨大。2021年中国的新生儿为1062万,按照这个患病率,2021年可能的成骨不全症儿童有大约708至531人。十年下来,中国的成骨不全症儿童应该有五千至一万人左右。三、问:那这个病是怎么得得了?是和父母有遗传关系吗?姜海:该病是由多种致病基因突变所致。目前已报道的致病基因至少有21种。其遗传模式只要呈常染色体显性遗传。有可能父母各携带一个突变基因,父母不发病,生出来的宝宝结合了父母的两个突变基因,就发病了。也有可能父母都是正常的,仅是宝宝在发育过程中出现了基因的突变导致发病。四、问:这个病有什么临床表现?作为父母,如何能早期发现宝宝患了这个病?姜海:成骨不全症常幼年发病,轻微创伤后反复发生骨折,病情严重者在宫内或出生时即骨折,可导致脊柱侧凸,胸廓塌陷,四肢弯曲等畸形。患儿还可伴有听力下降,关节韧带松弛,心脏瓣膜病变等骨骼外表现。该病危害大,具有较高的致残率。作为父母,如果发现宝宝轻微外力下就容易骨折,同时一年内多次骨折,一定要警惕患这种病。同时注意观察宝宝的巩膜,看是否巩膜是蓝色的。患者典型X线表现及常见体征如箭头所示,A:长骨纤细,皮质菲薄,多发陈旧性骨折;B:脊柱侧凸畸形,胸郭塌陷;C:骨盆畸形,长骨弯曲畸形;D:颅板薄,枕骨缝间骨;E:蓝巩膜;F:牙本质发育不全;G:指间关节韧带松驰;五、问:如何来确诊宝宝患了这个病呢?姜海:主要依据临床表现和影像学特点,包括自幼发病,反复脆性骨折史;蓝巩膜;听力下降;阳性骨折家族史;骨骼X线影像特征。此外,应注意排除多种遗传性及代谢性骨骼疾病,如软骨发育不全、低血磷性佝偻病、维生素D依赖性佝偻病、骨纤维异样增殖症、低磷酸酶血症、肿瘤相关骨病和关节活动过度综合征等。基因诊断对发现该病的病因、做好遗传咨询和优生优育具有积极意义。由于尚未发现呈成骨不全症的所有致病基因,因此基因诊断不能代替临床诊断,基因检测阴性者不能完全排除罹患该病的可能。有生育需求的成骨不全症患者或已育有成骨不全症患儿的夫妇拟再生育者,建议行基因诊断,为遗传咨询和产前基因诊断做准备。目前成骨不全症的产前诊断需通过羊膜穿刺获得胎儿基因组DNA样本。羊膜穿刺有3个时机:妊娠第11~13周取绒毛组织;或妊娠第16~24周取羊水细胞;或妊娠第23周后取脐血。建议选择有条件的医院妇产科行羊膜穿刺,尽早获得胎儿基因组DNA样本,进行基因诊断。六、问:目前这个病能治愈吗?该如何治疗?姜海:该病目前还不能完全治愈,但通过综合性的治疗,可以改善患儿的活动能力,提高生活质量。适量的钙剂和维生素D有助于提供骨骼发育所需的营养。目前广泛使用的治疗成骨不全症的药物主要是双膦酸盐类。双膦酸盐属于骨吸收抑制剂,能够与骨骼羟基磷灰石结合,有效抑制破骨细胞活性,减少骨吸收,从而增加骨密度,降低骨折风险。第二代帕米膦酸二钠,第三代唑来膦酸临床运用治疗成骨不全症儿童安全性较好。儿童一旦确诊成骨不全症,应当尽早给予双膦酸药物治疗,能增加患儿的骨密度,降低骨折风险,改善疾病预后。西北妇女儿童医院骨科已采用第二代帕米膦酸二钠静脉输液治疗成骨不全症儿童数年,具有良好的安全性,临床效果满意。通过治疗后,患儿的骨密度明显增强,不再容易发生骨折,打破了以往的“骨折-卧床-骨质疏松加重-再骨折”的恶性循环,减轻了患儿的痛苦和家庭的负担。今年科室开展了第三代唑来膦酸注射液治疗成骨不全症儿童,输液时间明显缩短,住院时间也进一步缩短,花费更低,具有良好的临床推广价值。
“瓷娃娃病”——小儿成骨不全的分型及治疗原则成骨不全又称脆骨病,患有这种疾病的小朋友,因为太容易发生骨折,无法承受磕碰,被称为“瓷娃娃”。属于先天性结缔组织缺陷,以骨形成不良,皮质菲薄,骨细小、脆弱,反复骨折,骨关节严重进行性畸形,关节松弛,蓝巩膜及牙齿形成不全为常见表现,往往造成严重残废。分型:Ⅰ型为常染色体显性遗传,蓝巩膜,只表现为轻度骨畸形。Ⅱ型为常染色体显性或散发,表现为极度骨脆性、宫内骨折、呼吸衰竭、新生儿死亡。Ⅲ型为严重型,呈现宫内发育迟缓,出生后即出现骨折,临床上出现严重的骨关节畸形。型ⅠV型为常染色体显性遗传,但无蓝巩膜,中度骨关节畸形。治疗原则:成骨不全的治疗,主要是预防骨折,改善负重力线,增加骨骼强度,改善功能。1.非手术治疗(1)药物治疗:有报道,骨化三醇与鲑鱼降钙素可联合应用治疗伴有疼痛症状的成骨不全患者,用药数周后症状缓解,三个月后骨密度增加、骨皮质增厚。(2)康复治疗:在严格保护下水疗、练习坐直、加强骨盆与下肢肌力。可以独立坐直后,在长腿支具保护下练习站立,以后在支具保护、行走器帮助下练习行走。另外,Letts等提出患儿可穿用真空裤矫形器练习站立,这种方法舒适、安全,可以减少骨折的发生率。2.手术治疗(1)婴儿期可采用经皮或经骨折端髓内穿针处理,暂时维持骨的力线顺列,此时穿针要求不一定完全贯穿髓腔,部分在髓腔内,部分在骨旁。(2)3-4岁以后更换可延伸的髓内支杆。多段截骨髓内钉或可延髓内支杆矫形术是治疗因成骨不全复合畸形的一种行之有效的方法。(3)大年龄儿童胫骨多段截骨最好植骨,因为有出现不愈合的可能。股骨近端截骨线过高,术后有可能出现髋内翻。(完)